Critical Thinking And Scientific Literacy In Elementary Science Education Science Literature Review Instructions You will complete a Science Literature Rev

Critical Thinking And Scientific Literacy In Elementary Science Education Science Literature Review Instructions You will complete a Science Literature Reviews designed to acquaint yourself with teacher-oriented literature in science education. For each review, choose a different journal article relating to science education, dated within the last 5 years. For each literature review, you will prepare a 2-3 page typed report, including a summary and a reaction or analysis that describes how you would use the content in science teaching. Each review must include a title page and reference page, and must be in APA format. Refer to the rubric for grading criteria. Use headings to divide your literature review into 2 sections: Summary: Main points of the article are summarized in at least 1 page. Reflection: Reflection page contains well-thought-through ideas of how to apply article content to teaching science. Int J of Sci and Math Educ (2016) 14:659–680
DOI 10.1007/s10763-014-9605-2
Fostering Scientific Literacy and Critical Thinking
in Elementary Science Education
Rui Marques Vieira & Celina Tenreiro-Vieira
Received: 30 April 2014 / Accepted: 13 November 2014 / Published online: 30 December 2014
# Ministry of Science and Technology, Taiwan 2014
Abstract Scientific literacy (SL) and critical thinking (CT) are key components of
science education aiming to prepare students to think and to function as responsible
citizens in a world increasingly affected by science and technology (S&T). Therefore,
students should be given opportunities in their science classes to be engaged in learning
experiences that promote SL and CT, which may trigger the need to build and develop
knowledge, attitudes/values, thinking abilities, and standards/criteria in an integrated
way, resulting in their ability to know how to take responsible action in contexts and
situations of personal and social relevance. This paper reports on a study to design,
implement, and assess science learning experiences focused on CT toward SL goal.
Results support the conclusion that the learning experiences developed and implemented in a grade 6 science classroom had a significant influence on the students’ CT and
SL. Within this elementary school context, the theoretical framework used appears to
be a relevant and practical aid for developing learning experiences that promote CT/SL
and in supporting teaching practices that are more in line with the goals of critical
scientific literacy.
Keywords Critical thinking . Elementary science education . Scientific literacy
Today’s knowledge-based societies reflect a rapid evolution of science and technology
(S&T) and a need for an all-inclusive science education that begins from the early
years. All students, not only those who wish to pursue a career in science or technology,
should benefit from the science education provided, which includes understanding the
scientific dimension of phenomena and events; critical appreciation of the potentialities
and limitations of science, its role in society, and its contribution to citizenship;
and development of critical thinking, oral communication, and writing skills
R. M. Vieira
Department of Education, University of Aveiro, 3810-193 Aveiro, Portugal
R. M. Vieira (*) : C. Tenreiro-Vieira
Research Centre for Didactics and Technology in Teacher Education, University of Aveiro, Aveiro,
Portugal
e-mail: rvieira@ua.pt
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(BSCS, 2008). Several recent international science education reforms have
included scientific literacy (SL), science practices, critical thinking (CT), and
socioscientific issues as learning outcomes (National Research Council [NRC],
2012; Rocard et al., 2007). However, few reforms provide an operational
definition of SL that includes CT and that is practical and useable by elementary science teachers to guide their planning, classroom teaching, and assessment practices.
This study, which is part of an ongoing program of inquiry, involved the development of a framework and an action research plan that documented a design–implementation–evaluation process of learning experiences focused on CT and SL. The
framework that involved the CT and SL components (Vieira, Tenreiro-Vieira &
Martins, 2011) guided the development and enactment of lessons within a grade 6
classroom.
Background
Harlen (2010) suggested that science education should enable every individual
to take an informed part in decisions and appropriate actions that affect their
well-being and the welfare of society and the environment. This implies a
broad understanding of key science ideas in conjunction with the development
of scientific skills and attitudes relevant to students’ lives during and beyond
their school years so that they can productively adapt and operate in a
knowledge-driven society. Participation as active citizens and agents of social
cohesion in a pluralistic, scientific, and technologically advanced democratic
society requires more than being able to complete tasks imposed externally. It
also requires being able to (a) extrapolate from what has been learnt; (b) apply
built knowledge and thinking skills to interact with others, communicating
positions and counter-arguments effectively; (c) participate in problem-solving
and decision-making processes; and (d) form rational opinions about sciencebased issues to achieve sustainable development in modern societies
(International Council for Science [ICSU], 2011).
Current International Science Education Reforms
International science education documents have stressed a science-technology-society
(STS) approach in order to promote SL in close connection with CT (Aikenhead, 1992;
Vieira et al., 2011). Scientific literacy—by emphasizing scientific knowledge (knowledge of and about science) and the use of that knowledge in different contexts and
situations in conjunction with scientific ways of thinking—provides citizens with the
necessary tools to engage with science critically, reinforcing a more humanistic culture
that is based on rational thinking (Harlen, 2010; ICSU, 2011; Osborne & Dillon, 2008;
Rocard et al., 2007). Without this preparation, people are likely to make decisions and
choices with implications for themselves and others that are based on opinion, experience, or personal interest or based on information or the beliefs of others (ICSU,
2011). Many countries have promoted science curricula projects oriented toward SL
where CT emerges as a prominent component.
Fostering SL and CT in Elementary Science Education
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United States of America (USA)
Highlighted among the curricular proposals for science teaching in a literacy perspective in the USA are the Project 2061: Science for All Americans and Benchmarks for
Science Literacy (American Association for the Advancement of Science, 1990, 1993),
National Science Education Standards (NRC, 1996), and A Framework for K-12
Science Education: Practices, Crosscutting Concepts, and Core Ideas (NRC, 2012).
The framework document describes the major science and engineering practices,
crosscutting concepts, and disciplinary core ideas that all students should have acquired
by the end of grade 12 so as to engage in public discussions on science-related issues
and to be critical consumers of scientific information related to their everyday lives.
Based on this vision, the Next Generation Science Standards (NGSS Lead States,
2013) established the standards designed to prepare students for college, career, and
citizenship.
Australia
Hackling, Goodrum & Rennie (2001) highlighted that the basic purpose of science
education in Australian compulsory education is to develop students’ scientific literacy,
which has a critical stance. They argued that SL is a priority for all citizens as it helps
them to (a) become interested in and understand the world around them; (b) engage in
scientific discussions; (c) be skeptical and question statements made by others on issues
that involve science; (d) be able to identify questions for scientific investigations, to
explain scientific phenomena, and to draw evidence-based conclusions about sciencerelated issues; and (e) make informed decisions on the environment, their health, and
welfare.
Canada
The Pan-Canadian Protocol for Collaboration on School Curriculum developed the
Common Framework of Science Learning Outcomes, K to 12 (Council of Ministers of
Education of Canada, 1997) that has an implied SL-CT perspective. This framework is
guided by the vision that all Canadian students will have an opportunity to develop
scientific literacy, which can serve as a strong future for them. It established four
foundation statements that delineated critical aspects of students’ scientific literacy: (a)
science, technology, society, and environment (STSE); (b) skills required for scientific
and technological inquiry, for solving problems, for communicating scientific ideas and
results, for working collaboratively, and for making informed decisions; (c) knowledge,
understandings, and applications of scientific concepts to interpret, integrate, and
extend their knowledge; and (d) attitudes that support the responsible acquisition and
application of scientific and technological knowledge to the mutual benefit of self,
society, and the environment.
European Union
The project Beyond 2000: Science Education for the Future (Millar & Osborne, 1998)
argued in favor of a new vision for science education in Europe and presented ten
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recommendations. The first recommendation was that science curriculum (from 5 to
16 years of age) should be seen, first and foremost, as a promoter of general scientific
literacy. Consequently, the report of Rocard et al. (2007) stressed that, in providing all
citizens with both scientific literacy and a positive attitude toward science, the key point
is equipping every citizen with the skills needed to live and work in the knowledge
society by giving them the opportunity to develop CT and scientific reasoning thereby
enabling them to make well-informed choices. Students should be able to (a) develop a
basic understanding of mathematics and science to understand the issues and make
informed choices; (b) acquire more knowledge, when necessary, whether for personal
interest or for professional reasons; (c) make judgments on scientific ideas and procedures; (d) assess the reasons fundamental to making decisions that have to be made in
everyday contexts; (e) understand and respond critically to reports presented by the
media on social problems with underlying scientific issues; and (f) express a personal
point of view on issues that encompass science and are in public debate in addition to
becoming actively involved.
England
The current National Curriculum in England (Department for Education, 2013) aims to
ensure that students, from an early age, develop essential aspects of the knowledge,
methods, processes, and uses of science and other disciplines. It emphasizes that
science provides opportunities for student to (a) develop their scientific vocabulary,
articulating scientific concepts clearly and precisely in making their thinking clear and
(b) work scientifically, developing secure understanding of key scientific knowledge
and concepts and thinking skills through the involvement in scientific enquiry, and
using a variety of approaches to answer relevant scientific questions. These approaches
include observing over time; identifying, classifying, and grouping; investigating
(controlled investigations); and researching using secondary sources. It should be noted
that the development of the curriculum was based on comparative curricula studies of
countries with high performance in international assessments (e.g. Trends in
International Mathematics and Science Study and Programme for International
Student Assessment [PISA]). The comparative studies showed that the main purpose
of science education was to prepare students to continue their studies and ensure that all
students are scientifically literate adults able to act responsibly and as informed
individuals (Department for Education, 2011).
Finland
The National Core Curriculum for Basic Education in Finland (Finnish
National Board of Education, 2004) emphasizes that basic education must
provide an opportunity for diversified growth and learning so that students
are able to build the knowledge and skills they need in order to continue their
studies and develop a democratic society as concerned citizens. The curriculum
assumes a sustainable development perspective in which it is stressed that
science teaching must stimulate pupils to (a) care for their environment and
act responsibly toward it and (b) make choices that promote individual and
collective health and well-being.
Fostering SL and CT in Elementary Science Education
663
Portugal
Portuguese curricular documents have identified SL as the main goal of science
education, highlighting the importance of the development of scientific knowledge
and thinking abilities, such as CT and reasoning, to deal with socioscientific issues
(Vieira et al., 2011). The latest science education curriculum guidelines identify the
knowledge and skills that students must develop to continue their education and to meet
the needs of society (Ministério da Educação e Ciência [Ministry of Education and
Science], 2013).
The commonalities across these international science education reforms are the
broadening perspective of considering both mainstream SL—literacy for citizenship—and pipeline SL—further studies and future careers in science and engineering.
Despite the restructuring of science curricula, international studies focused on SL
suggest that, depending on the country, between one- and two-thirds of the population
does not demonstrate a minimum level of skills considered essential to engage in
further learning and to function in modern economies and societies increasingly
dependent on the use of knowledge (Rocard et al., 2007). Similarly, science that has
been taught in school has failed to help students become interested in science (Osborne
& Dillon, 2008; Rocard et al., 2007).
As indicated by the high number of young people who experience social inequalities
or learning difficulties or who leave school without a diploma and the high number of
functionally illiterate adults, educational authorities have placed an increasing emphasis
on changes to the curriculum. Oates (2010) noted that the national curriculum of a
country cannot be considered isolated from other vital factors that affect the educational
system (e.g. teacher education and professional development, learning activities and
didactic resources, and teaching practices). All elements of the school system interact,
and they should be constantly adjusted in order to be consistent with the goals stated in
the curriculum (Department for Education, 2011). Therefore, it is crucial to sustain the
development of resources, teaching strategies, and learning experiences for science
education and provide professional development opportunities necessary for teachers to
adapt and transform their practices (Osborne & Dillon, 2008).
The Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) policy
report entitled Evolution of Students’ Interest in Science and Technology Studies
(OECD, 2006b) stressed that traditional science teaching methods have a negative
impact on students’ interest in science and on the development of positive attitudes
toward learning science. This report noted the uncomfortable situation for some
teachers in the early years of schooling who are requested or required to teach subjects
(i.e. science) in which they lack self-confidence or knowledge. This situation often
leads them to resort to a blackboard-and-white-chalk approach with which they feel
most comfortable and to avoid research-based approaches that require a deeper and
integrated understanding of science, resulting in an emphasis on the memorization of
factual information.
Scientific Literacy
Scientific literacy has been identified and recognized as a goal of science
education. Despite this, there is no consensus on the meaning of the term
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scientific literacy. Science researchers and educators as well as various
organizations have developed rationales and highlighted characteristics, mainly
in terms of knowledge and skills, expected of a scientifically literate person.
The NRC (1996) defined SL as “the knowledge and understanding of scientific
concepts and processes required for personal decision making, participation in
civic and cultural affairs, and economic productivity” (p. 22). Each individual
should be able to (a) ask or find answers to questions arising from their own
curiosity regarding everyday experiences; (b) describe, explain, and predict
natural phenomena; (c) interpret newspaper articles about science in the media
and engage in public social discussion about the validity of the conclusions
presented and methods used; (d) identify scientific issues underlying local and
national decisions; (e) take and express positions based on scientific and
technological knowledge; (f) assess scientific information based on the credibility of the sources and the validity of methods used to generate it; and (g)
evaluate arguments based on scientific evidence.
The PISA framework defined SL as the ability to use scientific knowledge and
processes not only to understand the natural world but also to participate in decisions
about it and the changes therein made by human activity (OECD, 2006a, 2009). More
specifically, PISA considers that SL aids individuals in identifying scientific questions;
acquiring new knowledge; explaining scientific phenomena and drawing conclusions
based on evidence about science-related issues; understanding the characteristic features of science as a form of human research and knowledge; being aware of how S&T
shape the material, intellectual, and cultural environments; and encouraging involvement in science-related issues and with scientific ideas as a reflective citizen.
Harlen (2006) stressed that being scientifically literate means being able to appreciate and understand the impact of S&T in everyday life, assessing risks and benefits of
scientific and technological advances; using ideas, concepts, and scientific processes in
decision making; and having an open-mindedness to accept alternative viewpoints that
are based on scientific evidence. Hofstein, Eilks & Bybee (2011) argued for increased
emphasis on STS education and a stronger inclusion of societal issues in science
education:
Dealing with issues that are socially relevant and which are actually discussed is
relevant to the lives of students in present society. Skills developed along these
lines will be important for students’ participation in societal debates concerning
the development of their future as scientifically literate citizens. (p. 1464)
Science education with an STS orientation that emphasizes the interrelationships of
scientific concepts and real-life phenomena can better serve students (Vieira et al.,
2011).
The PISA definition and STS context assume that students will acquire and apply
scientific knowledge where rational thinking and relating evidence and conclusions are
seen as pivotal to all citizens in order to make informed and sustainable decisions about
courses of action that affect life on a personal, social, and global level. Fundamental in
such literate use of empirical argumentation is the ability of individuals to communicate
effectively; otherwise, they will not be able to engage and have a voice in public
debates about SSI.
Fostering SL and CT in Elementary Science Education
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Roberts (2007) defined the ideologies of SL on a continuum between two extremes:
vision I and vision II. Vision I is scientist-centered and focused on decontextualized
science subject matter; vision II is student-centered and context-driven, with the aim to
enculturate students into their local, national, and global communities (Aikenhead,
2007). Yore, Pimm & Tuan (2007) suggested that there are two interacting senses of
contemporary disciplinary literacy: the fundamental sense and the derived sense.
The fundamental sense subsumes abilities, emotional dispositions, and information communication technologies as well as communication (speaking, listening,
reading, writing, representing, interpreting), while the derived sense subsumes the
content goals regarding understanding the big ideas of science, the nature of
science, scientific inquiry, technological design, and the relationships among
STSE. (p. 568)
Recently, science education researchers are mentioning a vision III. This
vision emphasizes SL as being the combination of abilities, skills, dispositions,
and knowledge to engage STSE …
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