Impact of Fake News to The Society Argumentative Essay Below are the guidelines for this Essay. For this essay, you will be crafting your own argument. It

Impact of Fake News to The Society Argumentative Essay Below are the guidelines for this Essay. For this essay, you will be crafting your own argument. It is important, therefore, that at some point, you review the Rhetorical Analysis packet and understand that you should be making conscious moves in your own writing to establish credibility, appeal to logic, acknowledge the opposition, rely on reasonable assumptions, avoid fallacies, and support your claims with sufficient evidence. Exploring a Current Issue
150 points
You have read six op-ed pieces on the topic of Fake News and the Unstable State of Journalism:
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“The Remedy for the Spread of Fake News? History Teachers” (Kevin Levin)
“How to Save the News” (William F. Baker)
“Facebook Mounts Effort to Limit Tide of Fake News” (Mike Isaac)
“Solving the Problem of Fake News” (Nicholas Lemann)
“A New Journalism for Democracy in a New Age” (Pew Research Center)
“The Fall, Rise, and Fall of Media Trust” (Michael Schudson)
Using 2-3 of the articles above, and 2-3 articles you found on your own (a total of 4-6 sources needed),
write an argumentative essay, answering one of the following key questions:
Key Questions
1. Who should be responsible for preventing the spread of fake news, and to what extent is each
group responsible?
2. How does fake news and the unstable state of journalism today affect society, and how can we
begin to address this issue?
3. Why is good journalism important in our country, and what happens when it is compromised?
1. Purpose: Avoid problems in logic, especially through an understanding of fallacies, and employ
rhetorical appeals and elements of Toulmin’s model of argumentation (SLO #2).
? Audience: Someone who does not see fake news or the unstable state of journalism as a problem.
? Requirements:
o The MLA-formatted essay must be 2,000-2,500 words, not including the Works Cited page.
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The final draft must be submitted to Canvas using the highlighting/annotation pattern
indicated in the Canvas submission area for this assignment.
English 124 ? Spring 2019 ? Prof. Sarah Martin
Exploring a Current Issue: Grading Rubric
Category
Rationale/Comments
Points
Possible
Title is appropriate and original: Yes/No
Title
&
Introduction
Introduction includes a hook/attention-grabber: Yes/No
Context regarding the topic/issue is provided: Yes/No
/20
Thesis clearly answers one of the Key Questions: Yes/No
Body paragraphs have a clear topic: Yes/No
Body paragraphs progress in a logical order: Yes/No
/20
Organization
Clear claims are made to support the thesis: Yes/No
Logical reasoning and effective appeals are used: Yes/No
Development &
Support
Adequate evidence is used from articles to support points: Yes/No
Paraphrase and quotation are used effectively: Yes/No
/60
At least 3 forwarding moves and 1 countering move are used: Yes/No
Restates thesis and summarizes key points: Yes/No
Conclusion
Ends with a global statement or call to action: Yes/No
/20
Final Draft is highlighted/annotated appropriately: Yes/No
Grammar &
MLA formatting is correct.
MLA Format
/30
Essay is free of errors which might interfere with meaning.
/150
Total
English 124 ? Spring 2019 ? Prof. Sarah Martin
R HETORICA L A NA LYSIS P ACKET
E NGLISH 124
I. PARTS OF AN ARGUMENT
Part
Claim
Reasons
Evidence
Acknowledgement
of
Counterargument
& Refutation
Warrants
Description
Debatable statement that
forms the main point of an
argument. (Sometimes
called a thesis statement.)
What does the author think?
Arguments that help
support the main claim.
(These allow the author to
break a broad claim into
smaller, more precise
sections.)
Why does the author think
so?
Personal experience,
outside authorities, facts,
and statistics that support
subclaims. (Stands by itself;
the evidence is not
debatable, though its
interpretation may be.)
How does the author know
he/she is right?
Admission of possible
counterarguments,
reassertion of argument.
(Strengthens argument by
adding subtleties.)
It may be argued that ____.
However, that argument is
not sound because ____.
Assumptions that underlie
the argument. (Usually left
unstated, if the author
assumes his/herr reader
shares them). What is the
author assuming?
Examples
Mr. X was an incredibly lazy
anthropology teacher.
Most every class, while Mr. X sat
at his desk, we watched movies
that had very little educational
value.
Mr. X used old tests that seemed
to be designed to save him time
rather than to gauge our
knowledge of material.
Some of the movies we watched
included Little Big Man and Last
of the Mohicans.
During two tests, I had to show
him as many as eight questions
that covered material he had
never assigned. Both times, he
told the class to skip those
questions.
Acknowledge Counterargument:
It’s true that half the class named
him as their favorite teacher.
Refutation:
The same half of the class slept
through class every day.
Teachers ought to be engaged,
attentive, and hardworking.
Teachers should only test students
on material covered in class.
II. CHOOSING ACCURATE VERBS TO DESCRIBE PURPOSE
I know what it says…but what does it do?
*The following verbs will be helpful when analyzing what an author is doing
(the rhetorical moves he/she is making), rather than what he/she is saying.
Acknowledges
Amplifies
Analyzes
Argues
Articulates
Asserts
Blends
Challenges
Clarifies
Compares
Compiles
Concludes
Constructs
Contrasts
Debates
Deconstructs
Defends
Defines
III.
Differentiates
Discusses
Dissects
Distinguishes
Establishes
Evaluates
Exemplifies
Explains
Forecasts
Gathers
Generalizes
Identifies
Illustrates
Incorporates
Inspects
Integrates
Interprets
Introduces
Justifies
Models
Navigates
Organizes
Outlines
Persuades
Predicts
Presents
Proposes
Proves
Qualifies
Questions
Substantiates
Suggests
Summarizes
Theorizes
Traces
Uses
I DEN TI F YI N G T A RG E T A UDI EN CE
*It is important to look at the kinds of information and the word choices of the
author (s) when trying to identify what specific group of people were the
target audience. Consider:
? Is it meant for the general public or a specific group of people?
o Are there terms only a doctor or a scuba diver is familiar with?
? Is the audience expected to have a certain level of education?
o Look at the level of vocabulary being used.
? Is there a specific age group being targeted?
o The kinds of examples and stories included in the source can help
determine this.
IV.
D E TE R MI NI NG T O N E
*Here are some examples of the kinds of tone an author can take. Again, pay
close attention to the language (word choice) of an author when trying to
establish the tone being used.
Tone
Angry
Biased
Casual
Challenging
Humorous
Intellectual
Neutral
Personable
Sad
Sarcastic
V.
Synonyms
Irritated, vexed, indignant, offended
One-sided, partial
Informal, easy-going
Provocative, defiant, questioning
Amusing, funny, jovial, joking
Intelligent, knowledgeable
Impartial, unbiased, open-minded, objective
Friendly, good-natured, affable
Dispirited, discouraged, unhappy
Satirical, disparaging, scornful, contemptuous
A NA LY ZI N G R H E TO RI CA L S TRA TEGI ES
Rhetorical strategy – a particular way in which writers craft language so as to
have an effect on readers. Strategies are means of persuasion, ways of using
language to get readers’ attention and agreement.
Some Common Rhetorical Strategies –
? Appeals: Ethos, pathos, and logos
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Organizational patterns
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Rebuttals (counter-arguments/acknowledging opposition)
When analyzing Rhetorical Strategies, remember to:
1. Identify rhetorical strategies.
2. Describe how they work.
3. Describe why they are used – what purpose do they accomplish?
Note: When describing why a strategy is used, you may want to consider
alternative strategies, and think about how they would work differently. You may
also want to consider what would happen if the strategy were left out – what
difference would it make to the argument? This may help you figure out why the
particular strategy was chosen.
Logos, Ethos, and Pathos
To Appeal to LOGOS
(logic, reasoning)
The argument itself; the
reasoning the author uses.
Types of LOGOS Appeals
? Theories / scientific
facts
? Indicated meanings or
reasons (because…)
? Analogies
? Definitions
? Factual data &
statistics
? Quotations
? Citations from experts
& authorities
? Informed opinions
? Examples (real life
examples)
? Personal anecdotes
Effect on Audience
Evokes a cognitive, rational
response. Readers get a
sense of, “Oh, that makes
sense,” or “Hmm, that really
doesn’t prove anything.”
How to Talk About It
The author appeals to logos
by defining relevant terms
and then supports his claim
with numerous citations from
authorities.
The author’s logos appeals of
statistics and expert
testimony are very
convincing.
To Develop or Appeal to
ETHOS (character, ethics)
How an author builds
credibility &
trustworthiness.
Ways to Develop ETHOS
? Author’s profession /
background
? Author’s publication
? Appears sincere, fair
minded,
knowledgeable
? Concedes to the
opposition
? Morally / ethically
likeable
? Appropriate
language for
audience and
subject
? Appropriate
vocabulary
? Correct grammar
? Professional format
Effect on Audience
Helps reader to see the
author as reliable,
trustworthy, competent,
and credible. The reader
might respect the author
or his/her views.
How to Talk About It
Through his use of
scientific terminology, the
author builds his ethos by
appearing
knowledgeable.
The author’s ethos is
effectively developed as
readers see that he is
sympathetic to the
struggles minorities face.
To Appeal to PATHOS
(emotion)
Words or passages an
author uses to activate
emotions.
Types of Pathos Appeals
? Emotionally loaded
language
? Vivid descriptions
? Emotional examples
? Anecdotes,
testimonies, or
Narratives about
emotional
experiences or
events
? Figurative language
? Emotional tone
(humor, sarcasm,
disappointment,
excitement, etc.)
Effect on Audience
Evokes an emotional
response. Persuasion by
emotion.
(usually evoking fear,
sympathy, empathy,
anger)
How to Talk About It
When referencing 9/11,
the author is appealing to
pathos. Here, he is
eliciting both sadness and
anger from his readers.
The author’s description of
the child with cancer was
a very persuasive pathos
appeal.
How Structure Can Further an Author’s Argument
To understand structure, consider the overall organization of the
essay and how it furthers the author’s persuasive strategies.
Examine the various parts of the argument. How do the separate
sections of the essay develop the claim? Try not to summarize or
simply list the main point of each paragraph. Focus on one or two
aspects of the essay’s organization and how it furthers the author’s
argument.
Authors use various organizational strategies to structure their
arguments. For instance, one way that authors might organize their
essay is in terms of a problem-solution-justification structure. The
opening section typically persuades the audience that a problem
exists, the second section offers potential solutions, and the final
section attempts to justify the solutions by showing how they help
to alleviate the problem. When investigating historical or social
arguments, writers typically examine the cause and effect of issues
and events to further their claims. Thus, writers will detail the way
specific events lead to certain outcomes. These are a just few of
the typical ways that writers organize their arguments.
Below is a list of common organizational strategies:
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Comparison-Contrast
Cause-Effect
Definition (defining key terms)
Problem-Solution
Classification/Division
Emphatic (order of importance)
Chronological (time order)
General to Specific
Abstract to Concrete OR Simple to Complex
Point-by-Point
Exemplification (organizing by examples)
Counterargument and Refutation
It is important that you can both recognize and utilize the following process for
counterargument and refutation.
3-Step Process of Refutation
Step 1: Acknowledge (“They say…”)
Step 2: Refute Using Support (“But…because…”)
Step 3: Conclude (“Therefore….”)
Sample Paragraph Using the 3-Step Process
Some of the moves have been underlined for you.
Advances in medical robot technology have led to improvements in the
quality of surgeries, which benefit patients. For example, the daVinci Robotic
Surgical System (DRSS) is a technologically advanced surgical system that is
used for delicate procedures such as prostate and kidney surgeries. Some
patients are skeptical of the device initially because they think the robot
performs the surgery on its own. However, the robot is only a tool for a human
surgeon. Furthermore, in his article, “Robotic Surgery Benefits Springfield
Hospital,” Kevin Stirling emphasizes the fact that “for patients requiring surgery,
the advantages and benefits of minimally invasive surgery with the daVinci
Robotic Surgical System are plentiful including but not limited to: less pain,
shorter recovery times, shorter hospital stays, less blood loss, fewer transfusions,
less scarring,…and overall improved clinical outcomes generally” (Stirling). In
other words, Stirling believes that the DRSS is an invaluable advancement in
medical technology that aids both patients and doctors immensely. I see eye
to eye with Stirling in his belief that the daVinci robot is a benefit to society.
Therefore, patients should try to overcome their apprehensions about this
technology since there are fewer risks and less recovery time.
A New Journalism for Democracy in a New Age
February 1, 2005
By Pew Research Center: Journalism & Media staff
Journalism does more than keep us informed-journalism enables us as citizens to have our voices
heard in the chambers of power and allows us to monitor and moderate the sources of power that
shape our lives.
In the past few decades this responsibility of the journalist in a free society has been made more
vital and more difficult by the revolution in communications technology and the economic
organization of journalism it has spawned.
The technology has filled the world with a flood of undifferentiated information that is changing
the audience for news and information from passive receivers to pro-active consumers who
decide what they want, when they want it and how they want it.
I say ‘undifferentiated’ because the system is now accessible to a mass audience at each end of
the communications process-the producer and the consumer.
As a result the world of cyberspace is filled with many views of reality-many of them designed
to distract us or to control and dictate our public behavior rather than inform our independent
public judgment.
This new competition requires a new journalism to assure that the view of the world in which the
people live is one constructed with the integrity and reliability self-government requires.
There are two aspects of this new age that journalists must think more deeply and more
creatively that I would like to talk about today.
The first deals with the impact on the producer end of the information stream; the second is the
impact on the consumer.
Those of you who are just beginning your career in journalism are assuming an obligation as
public witness. A public witness who clearly and without distortion describes the actions and
behavior of those who shape and direct public life.
To enter into the life of a journalist is to accept personal responsibility for the credibility of your
work and to serve the interests of the consumer of the information. You can do that only if you
fully understand how the system works.
Because of this importance of the journalist’s work to others in the community, to become a
journalist is an act of character. For the public’s ability to become a force in self-government
depends upon the integrity of your work.
Page 1 of 14
Don’t just take my word for this. Here is how James D. Wolfensohn, president of the World
Bank, describes the importance of the journalist’s work:
“What differentiates poor people from rich people, is lack of voice. The inability to be
represented. The inability to convey to the people in authority what it is they think. The inability
to have a searchlight put on the conditions of inequality.
“A free press is absolutely vital to that objective. Freedom of the press is not a luxury. It is not an
extra. It is absolutely at the core of equitable development.”
First let me discuss the problem of unlimited producers of information that itself conceals two
challenges for journalism in the public interest-an economic challenge and content challenge.
The economic challenge affects even the largest and most powerful news organizations. As these
organizations compete in a worldwide market the pressure to maximize profit and minimize
costs has led to short-term decisions that threaten to undermine their ability to do quality work.
At the same time new producers in the form of individual bloggers–the pamphleteers of our
time–many of whom are tempted to use their perceived stature as independent journalists to sell
the content of their journalism as we have just witnessed in recent weeks in the U.S. in the cases
of Armstrong Williams and Maggie Gallagher.
Neither of these erosions in the quality and integrity is readily recognizable to consumers.
Too often the public’s interest has been ignored in favor of personal bias or corporate profit.
One result of these changes in the U.S., in addition to the Williams and Gallagher examples, can
be seen in the recent scandals at CBS television news, the New York Times‘ Jayson Blair scandal,
and USA Today‘s Jack Kelley. Failures that challenged the credibility of the country’s most
respected news institutions. Challenges which, left unaddressed, will destroy the vital link
between the people and its press on which democracy depends.
Each of those failures of journalism was the result of a thinning out of the professional staff in
the newsrooms, and a failure of the top leadership to develop a newsroom culture that
encourages openness, that rewards critical thinking and an acceptance by each journalist of
personal responsibility for the credibility of their work.
The second aspect of the new world of producers is a new sophistication in information control
by people and institutions of power. Sometime early in the 20th century those with their hands
on the levers of economic and political power in democratic societies realized they are, at
bottom, in the business of communications. The realization that the success of their economic
plan or their political program depends on their ability to get the majority of the people to see the
world in their terms.
Page 2 of 14
As a result they have been involved in carefully focused and well-financed efforts to develop
ever more subtle and effective ways to manipulate public behavior and understanding of the
issues in which they have a vested interest.
In the meanwhile we in the newsrooms of the world have done little if anything to sharpen our
understanding of how words are being used to manipulate our reports; how we react to events
that are staged to determine what we deem important to cover. One of the reasons journalists in
the United States now support the Committee of Concerned Journalists is the frustration they feel
that news organizations in our country traditionally invest less money in the on-going training
and education of their workers than almost any other industry. As people and institutions we
cover work diligently to learn new and better ways to control or avoid our scrutiny we seem
content to plod along in the reporting and editing ruts we formed in the 19th century.
It is this problem on news production that bleeds over into the problem of consumers that
journalism in the public interest faces.
For many of our newsrooms too often work by rote, letting others decide what is important to
cover and how it should be covered-letting judgments produced by vested interests be given, at
best, equal display with documented, verified information produced by their own dis-interested
staff–or, at worse, become the only judgment presented.
Journalists can meet this new challenge only by applying our own enduring values as
aggressively to expose these a…
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